Making Empirical Observations

Making Empirical Observations
Ray Block, Jr.
PS #585
Research Methods

Today’s Blueprint

Last Class: Today's Class:

Measurement

Conceptualization and operationalization

Levels of measurement

Validity and reliability

Observations

What will you observe?

How will you observe it?

From what kind of population are you sampling?

How will you record your observations?

Last Class:	Today's Class:
Measurement Conceptualization and operationalization Levels of measurement Validity and reliability	Observations What will you observe? How will you observe it? From what kind of population are you sampling? How will you record your observations?

What Will You Observe?
Think: Problem selection
Ways of gaining knowledge:

Knowledge as Belief
Example: Religious faith
Knowledge as Authority
Given to you from your “superiors”
A Priori Knowledge
Does not depend on experience
Empirical Knowledge
Gained through human senses/experience

What is observation?

Gaining knowledge about the social world through human senses

Observation = Empirical knowledge

What purpose does it serve?

Observation = Necessary for measurement

Remember:

That which can be observed empirically can be measured scientifically

Social science is rooted in observation… In a sense, all social science begins and ends with empirical observations.”
—Nachmias and Nachmias 1996, 206.

You cannot observe everything
What you observe is determined by what you are looking for

Previous research findings
Research question(s)
Hypotheses

What you observe = Unit of Analysis

How Will You Observe It?
Think: Data Collection
Ways of Observing

Direct Observation

Actually observing the behavior, attitudes, etc.

Indirect Observation

Observing only traces of the behavior, attitudes, etc.

Direct Observation Approaches

Participant Observation
4 “Perspectives” (by level of intrusiveness)

Complete Observer (Secret Outsider)
Participant as Observer (Recognized Outsider)
Observer as Participant (Marginal Participant)
Complete Participant (Full Participant)

Complete Observer (Secret Outsider)

Distant observer unknown to participants in natural setting


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Non-intrusive First-hand observations	· Removed from the situation

Participant as Observer (Recognized Outsider)

Firsthand observer made known to participants


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Closer to situation, yet still apart from it	Hawthorne Effect Observer perceived as being “different"

Observer as Participant (Marginal Participant)

Adopt position of commonly accepted and unimportant participant


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Minimizes Hawthorne effect Observer takes passive role in group	Group membership might bias data collection

Complete Participant (Full Participant)

Adopt position of central importance in situation


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Total immersion	Going “native” Ability to unintentionally change others’ behavior

Indirect Observation Approaches

Case Studies
Interviews and Surveys
Document Analysis
Meta Studies
Physical Artifacts (erosion and accretion)

Case Studies:

Intense study of a single individual, institution, or situation


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Rich details Directions for future research	Time-consuming Little generalizability No causal inference Motivated forgetting

Surveys:

Obtaining a limited amount of information from a large number of people, usually through random sampling


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Generalizability Statistical power Easier to code	Response bias (i.e. social desirability)

Interviews:

Obtaining large amounts of information from limited numbers of people, usually through non-random sampling


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Detailed responses Less response bias	Less statistical power Harder to code

Document Analysis

Combing through pre-existing documents to understand social phenomena


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Completely non-intrusive Researcher does not have to collect original data	Secondary, rather than primary, evidence· Must gain access to documents

Physical Artifacts

Erosion Measures: The indirect observation of selective “wear and tear” of some material
Accretion Measures: The indirect observation of the accumulation of materials


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Innovative and creative	Open to many (miss) interpretations

From What Kind of Population Are You Sampling?
Think: Sample Selection Sampling techniques:

Random samples
Non-random samples

[Simple] Random Sample

Each item in the target population has an equal chance of appearing in the sample
Samples are representative of population


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Can generalize beyond the sample	Difficult to obtain Expensive to collect

Non-Random Sample

Each item in the target population does not have an equal chance of being selected
Samples created using selection procedures


Advantages :-)	Disadvantages :-(
Easier to obtain Less expensive to collect	Cannot generalize beyond the sample

How Will You Record Your Observations?
Think: Coding and data entry

Types of records

Visual (Photographs, video tapes, etc.)
Audio (Taped conversations, speeches, etc.)
Written (Transcripts, summaries, etc.)
Digital (Computer disks, Internet, etc.)

How you record observations depends on:

Topic of interest
Ethical considerations
Access to resources

References (FYI):

Frankfort-Nachmias, Chava and David Nachmias. 1996. Research Methods in the Social Sciences, 5th Edition. New York, NY: St. Martin Press.

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